Period of 1945-1954 - The First Indochina War

Main article: Vietnam War

In early 1945, due to a combination of Japanese exploitation and poor weather, a famine broke out in Tonkin killing approximately 2 million people. In March 1945, Japanese occupying force ousted the French administration in Indochina. Emperor Bảo Đại of the Nguyễn Dynasty declared Vietnam independent, yet the real power was still in Japanese hand.

Flag of Democratic Republic of Vietnam(North Vietnam)

In August 1945, the Japanese surrendered to the Allies, created a power vacuum in Vietnam. The Việt Minh launched the "August Revolution" across the country to seize government offices. Emperor Bảo Ðại abdicated on August 25, 1945, ending the Nguyễn Dynasty. In September 2, 1945, Hồ Chí Minh declared Vietnam independent under the new name of Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and held the position of Chairman(Chủ Tịch).

In southern Vietnam, British forces landed in Saigon to disarm the Japanese, followed by French troops trying to re-establish their rule. In the north, Chiang Kai-shek's army entered Vietnam, also to disarm the Japanese, followed by the forces of the non-Communist Vietnamese parties,such as Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng and Việt Nam Cách Mạng Đồng Minh Hội. In 1946, Vietnam had its first National Assembly election, which drafted the first constitution, yet its situation was very precarious: the French tried to regain power by force; some Cochin Chinese politicians formed a seceding government of Cochin China(Nam Kỳ Quốc); the non-Communist and Communist forces were killing each other; the Communists were purging the Trotskyists; religious sects and resistance groups formed their own militias. The Communists eventually suppressed all non-Communist parties yet failed to secure a peace deal with France.

In 1947, full scale war broke out between Viet Minh and France. Realizing that colonism was coming to an end worldwide, France fashioned a semi-independent State of Vietnam, within the French Union, with Bảo Đại as Head of State. Meanwhile, as the Communists under Mao Zedong took over China, Viet Minh began to receive military aid from China. Beside supplying materials, Chinese cadres also pressured the Vietnamese Communist Party, then under First Secretary Trường Chinh , to emulate their brand of revolution, unleashing a purge of "bourgeois and feudal" elements from the Viet Minh ranks, carrying out a ruthless and bloody land reform campaign(Cải Cách Ruộng Đất), denouncing "bourgeois and feudal" tendency in arts and literature. Many true patriots and devoted Communist revolutionaries in the Viet Minh suffered mistreatment or even got executed during these movements. Many others became disenchanted and left the Viet Minh. The United States became strongly opposed to Hồ Chí Minh. In the 1950s the government of Bảo Ðại gained recognition by the United States and the United Kingdom.

Flag of Republic of Vietnam(South Vietnam)

The Việt Minh force grew significantly with China's assistance and in 1954, under the command of General Võ Nguyên Giáp, launched a major siege against French bases in Điện Biên Phủ. Việt Minh force surprised Western military experts with their use of primitive means to move artillery pieces and supplies up the mountains surrounding Điện Biên Phủ, giving them a decisive fire advantage. On May 7 1954, French troops at Điện Biên Phủ, under Christian de Castries, surrendered to Viet Minh. On July 1954, the Geneva Accord was signed between France and Viet-Minh, paving the way for France to leave Vietnam.

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Early Independence (938 CE - 1009 CE) [Continuing ]

Early in the 10th century AD, as China became politically fragmented, successive lords from the Khúc family and then Dương Đình Nghệ ruled Giao Châu autonomously under the Tang title of Tiết Độ Sứ (Virtuous Lord), yet stopping short of proclaiming themselves kings.

In 938 AD, the kingdom of Southern Han sent troops to conquer autonomous Giao Châu. Ngô Quyền, Dương Đình Nghệ's son-in-law, defeated the Southern Han fleet at the Bạch Đằng River then proclaimed himself King Ngô, effectively began the age of independence for Vietnam.

Ngô Quyền's untimely death after a short reign resulted in a power struggle for the throne, the country's first major civil war, The upheavals of Twelve warlords (Loạn Thập Nhị Sứ Quân). The war lasted from 945 CE to 967 CE when the clan led by Đinh Bộ Lĩnh defeated the other warlords, unifying the country. Dinh founded the Đinh Dynasty and proclaimed himself First Emperor (Tiên Hoàng) of Đại Cồ Việt(meaning Great Vietland), with its capital in Hoa Lư(modern day Ninh Bình). However, the Chinese Song Dynasty only officially recognized him as Prince of Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ Quận Vương). Emperor Đinh introduced strict penal codes to prevent chaos to happen again. He tried to form alliances by granting the title of Queen to 5 women from the 5 most influential families.

In 979 CE, Emperor Đinh Bộ Lĩnh and his crown prince Đinh Liễn were assassinated, leaving his lone surviving son, the 6-year-old Đinh Toàn, to assume the throne. Taking advantage of the situation, Chinese Song Dynasty invaded Đại Cồ Việt. Facing such grave threat to national independence, the court's Commander of the Ten Armies(Thập Đạo Tướng Quân) Lê Hoàn took the throne(with help from his secret lover, Empress Dương, Đinh Toàn's mother), founding the Former Lê Dynasty. A capable military tactician, Le Hoan realized the risks of engaging the mighty Chinese troops head on; thus he tricked the invading army into Chi Lăng Pass, then ambushed and killed their commander, quickly ending the threat to his young nation in 981 CE. The Song Dynasty withdrew their troops yet would not recognize Le Hoàn as Prince of Jiaozhi until 12 years later; nevetheless, he is referred to in his realm as Đại Hành Emperor(Đại Hành Hoàng Đế). Emperor Le Hoàn was also the first Vietnamese monarch who began the southward expansion process against the kingdom of Champa.

Emperor Le Hoàn's death in 1005 CE resulted in infighting for the throne amongst his sons. The eventual winner, Lê Long Đĩnh, became the most notorious tyrant in Vietnamese history. He devised sadistic punishments of prisoners for his own entertainement and indulged in sexual activities. Toward the end of his short life(he died at 24), Lê Long Đĩnh became so ill that he had to lie down when meeting with his officials in court.

Period of Chinese Domination (111 BCE - 938 CE) [ Continuing ]

In 111 BCE, Han Chinese troops invaded Nam Việt and annexed its territory into the Han empire. The part that is now northern Vietnam was named Giao Chỉ(Chinese: Jiaozhi) commandary. While Han Chinese held top administrative posts, the local Việt lords were still able to retain power over their land and people.

In 40 CE, rebelling against harsh rule by Han Governor Tô Định(Chinese: Su Ding:蘇定), two noble Việt women, the Trưng Sisters, led a successful uprising, captured 65 towns, and declared themselves Trưng Queens(Trưng Nữ Vương). In 42 CE, Emperor Guangwu of Han sent his famed general Mã Viện(Chinese: Ma Yuan) to crush the revolt. After a torturous campaign, Ma Yuan defeated the Trưng Queens, who died in battle. To this day, the Trưng Sisters are revered in Vietnam as the national symbol of Vietnamese woman. Learning a lesson from the Trưng Revolt, the Han and other successive Chinese dynasties took measures to eliminate the power of the Viet feudal lords. The Việt elites would be coerced to assimilate into Chinese culture and politics. However, in 225 CE, another lady, Triệu Thị Trinh, popularly known as Lady Triệu, led another uprising that lasted until 248 CE when she was defeated.

Much of northern Vietnam, from the Red River delta down to the region of modern Thanh Hóa province, was organized into the Chinese prefecture/commandery of Giao Chỉ(Chinese: Jiaozhi), and later also called Annam, then Giao Châu, until early 10th century CE. Giao Chỉ (with its capital settled around in modern Bắc Ninh province) became a flourishing trading outpost receiving goods from the southern seas. "History of Later Han" (Hậu Hán Thư, Hou Hanshu) recorded that in 166 CE the first envoy from the Roman Empire to China arrived by this route, and merchants were soon to follow. The 3rd century "Tales of Wei" (Ngụy Lục, Weilue) mentioned a "water route" (that is, the Red River) from Jiaozhi into what is now southern Yunnan. From there, goods were taken overland to the rest of China via the regions of modern Kunming and Chengdu.

At the same time, in present-day central Vietnam emerged a number of Cham nations, first Lin-Yi, then later a more powerful and highly civilized Champa. Present-day southern Vietnam belonged to the empire of Funan, whose archaeological artifacts included Roman coins.

In the period between the beginning of the Chinese Age of Fragmentation to the end of Tang Dynasty, several revolts against Chinese rule took place in the Red River delta, such as those of Lý Bôn, his lieutenant Triệu Quang Phục, Mai Thúc Loan, Phùng Hưng. All of them ultimately failed, yet most notable were Lý Bôn and Triệu Quang Phục, whose Anterior Lý Dynasty ruled for almost half a century(544 CE to 602 CE) before their kingdom Vạn Xuân being reconquered by the Chinese Sui Dynasty.

Early Kingdoms (Continuing )

According to Vietnamese myths, the first Vietnamese people descended from the Dragon Lord Lạc Long Quân and the Immortal Âu Cơ. Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ had 100 sons before they split (50 children went with their mother to the mountains and the other 50 went with their father to the sea). The eldest son became the first in a line of earliest Vietnamese kings, collectively known as Hùng kings (Hùng Vương or Hồng Bàng Dynasty). The Hùng kings called the country Văn Lang, which located on the Red River delta in present-day northern Vietnam. The people of Văn Lang were referred to as the Lạc Việt.

Before the Common Era, many tribes living south of the Yangzi River called themselves Yue (Việt in Vietnamese). Most tribes were linguistically related to the northern Chinese. Even today, Cantonese people and language are still being referred to as Yue. The Lạc Việt, however, were more linguistically related to other Southeast Asian people. Văn Lang culture was theorized to be evolving from natives who settled on the Red River delta since pre-historic time, rather than from migrating tribes from the North, as suggested in some Chinese legends.

Văn Lang was thought to be a matriarchal society, similar to many other matriarchal societies common in Southeast Asia and in the Pacific islands at the time. Various archaeological sites in northern Vietnam, such as Đông Sơn, yielded metal weapons and tools from this age. Most famous of these artifacts are the large bronze drums, probably made for ceremonial purposes, with sophisticated engravings on the surface, depicting life scenes with warriors, boats, houses, birds and animals in concentric circles around a radiating sun at the center. Many legends from this period offer some glimse into the life of the people. The Legend of the Rice Cakes(Sự Tích Bánh Dày Bánh Chưng), about a prince who won a culinary contest and then winning the throne because his creation, the rice cakes, reflected his deep understanding of the land's vital economy: rice farming. The Legend of Giong(Thánh Gióng), about a youth going to war to save the country, wearing an iron armor, riding an armored horse, wielding an iron staff, showed that metalworking was sophisticated. The Legend of the Magic Crossbow(Sự Tích Nỏ Thần), about a crossbow that can deliver thousands of arrows, showed extensive use of archery in warfare.

By the 3rd century BCE, another Viet group, the Âu Việt, emigrated from present-day southern China to the Red River delta and mixed with the indigenous Van Lang population. In 258 BCE, a new kingdom, Âu Lạc, emerged as the union of the Âu Việt and the Lạc Việt with Thục Phán proclaiming himself king An Dương Vương. At his capital Cổ Loa, he built many concentric layers of walls around the city for defensive purpose. These walls, together with Âu Lạc skilled archers, kept the capital safe from invaders for a while. However, it also gave rise to the first story of espionage in Vietnamese history that brought down king An Dương Vương.

In 207 BCE, an ambitious Chinese warlord named Triệu Đà(Chinese: Zhao Tuo) defeated king An Dương Vương by having his son Trọng Thủy(Chinese: Zhong Shi) marrying An Dương Vương's daughter, then acted as a spy. Triệu Đà annexed the kingdom of Âu Lạc into his domain in present-day Guangdong, southern China, then proclaimed himself king of a new independent kingdom, Nam Việt(Chines: Nan Yue). Trọng Thủy, the supposed crown prince, felt deep remorse as his wife was killed during the war, drowned himself in Cổ Loa.

Some Vietnamese considered the period under Triệu's rule a Chinese domination, since Triệu Đà was a former Qin general. Yet others consider it an era of Việt independence as the Triệu family in Nam Việt were assimilated to local culture. They ruled independently of what then constituted as China (Han dynasty). At one point, Triệu Đà even contemplated declaring himself Emperor to be an equal to the Chinese Han Emperor in the North.

Viet Nam historically general generality

The history of Vietnam, according to legends, dates back more than 4,000 years. The only reliable sources, however, indicate the Vietnamese history roughly dates to 2700 years ago. For most of the period from 111 BC to early 10th century, it was under the direct rule of successive dynasties from China. Vietnam regained autonomy in early 10th century, and complete independence in 939 AD. While for much of its history, Vietnam remained a tributary state to its larger neighbor China, it repelled repeated attempts by China to make it once again part of the Middle Kingdom empire, including the three invasions by the Mongols during the Yuan Dynasty, when China was under Mongolian rule. But the king at that time, Trần Nhân Tông, would eventually diplomatically submit as a tributary of the Yuan to avoid further conflicts. The independent period temporarily ended in middle to late 19th century, when the country was colonized by France. During World War II, Japan expelled the French to occupy Vietnam, though they retained French administrators during their occupation. After the war, France attempted to re-establish its colonial rule but ultimately failed. The Geneva Accords partitioned the country in two with a promise of democratic election to reunite the country.

That election did not take place, but gave way, depending on one's perspective, to a civil war, or another battle field of then ongoing global ideological conflict, The Cold War - the Vietnam War. During this time,the North was supported by the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, while the South was supported by the United States. After millions of Vietnamese deaths, and the American withdrawal from Vietnam in March 1973, the war ended with the fall of Saigon by the North in April 1975. Due to the then heightened ongoing ideological and economic conflicts of The Cold War, and its invasion of Cambodia, Vietnam remained internationally isolated and politically oppressed. In 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam changed its economic policy and started to move towards reform of the private sector similar to that seen in China. Since the mid-80s, Vietnam has enjoyed some economic growth and reduction in political repression though reports of corruption in the country have also risen.

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